В першу чергу винагороджуються | |
Система винагород (англ. Reward System) — це група нервових структур, відповідальних за стимулювання бажань і потягів, задоволення, та іхнє позитивне підкріплення (тобто навчання). Винагорода — принадна й мотиваційна властивість стимулу, що викликає апетитивну чи консумативну поведінку. Існує поняття винагородного подразника чи стимула (англ. rewarding stimulus). Це будь-який стимул, об'єкт, подія, дія або ситуація, яка має потенціал, щоби спонукати нас до наближення й споживання того, що викличе винагороду. В системі т.зв (або інструментального навчання — способу вироблення умовних рефлексів, при якому на поведінку впливають за допомогою наслідків поведінки: винагороди або покарання), потенційно-винагороджувані подразники діють як позитивні підкріплювачі; і обернене твердження теж вірно: позитивні зміцнювачі — винагороджуються.
Первинні винагороди — це ті, які необхідні для виживання особини й її нащадків, і включають у себе:
- Гомеостатичні (приємна їжа)
- Репродуктивні (сексуальний контакт і материнство/батьківство)
А також:
- Внутрішньозумовлені винагороди — це безумовні винагороди, які є привабливими й мотивують поведінку приємними відчуттями.
- Зовнішньозумовлені винагороди (такі як гроші) — це умовні нагороди, які є привабливими й мотивуючими, але не є безумовно приємними. Їхня цінність утворена шляхом навчання. Вони можуть також стати приємними після утворення умовних рефлексів на основі внутрішньозумовлених винагород.
Визначення
У нейробіології система винагород визначається як сукупність структур головного мозку, які відповідають за винагородно-зумовлене пізнання, в тому числі позитивне (навчання), а також бажання, симпатію і задоволення.
Анатомія системи винагороди
Мозкові структури, з яких складається система винагород, знаходяться, в першу чергу, серед «кортико-базально-ганглієво-таламічної петлі»; найбільш активна частина котрої знаходиться в базальних гангліях. Більшість шляхів, які з'єднують структури системи винагороди складаються з глутамінергічних нейронів, ГАМК-ергічних і дофамінергічних інтернейронів, хоча інші типи нейронів теж присутні. Система винагород об'єднує такі структури як: вентральну область покришки, вентральний стріатум (в першу чергу, прилегле ядро, і нюховий горбок), дорсальний стріатум (хвостате ядро і лушпину), чорна субстанцію, префронтальну кору, передню поясну кору, острівцеву (інсулярну) кору, гіпокамп, гіпоталамус, таламус (кілька ядер), субталамічне ядро, бліду кулю, парабрахіальні ядра, мигдалеподібне тіло та розширену мигдалину.
Серед шляхів, що з'єднують структури в кортико-базально-ганглієво-таламічній петлі, групи нейронів, відомі як мезолімбічні шляхи, які з'єднують вентральну тегментальну ділянку (ВТД) в прилеглому ядрі, а також пов'язаних з ними ГАМК D-1 тип середніх шипуватих нейронів у прилеглому ядрі, слугують одним з найважливіших компонентів системи винагороди, який бере пряму участь у безпосередньому сприйнятті мотиваційного компонента винагороди (тобто «хотіння»). Більшість дофамінових шляхів (нейрони, що використовують нейромедіатор дофамін для передачі сигналу) відбуваються у ВТД і є частиною системи винагороди; в цих шляхах допамін діє на D-1-подібні або D-2-подібні рецептори, тобто, стимулює (D-1-подібні) або інгібує (D-2-подібні) виробництво циклічного аденозинмонофосфат. ГАМК-ергічні середні шипуваті нейрони в стріатумі також є компонентами системи винагороди. Глутамінергічні проєкції ядер в , префронтальна кора, гіпокамп, таламус, мигдалеподібне тіло з'єднуються з іншими частинами системи винагороди через глутамінергічні шляхи. Медіальний пучок переднього мозку, який складається з моноамінових нейронів, які шлють проективні волокна з декількох окремих ядер, також є частиною системи винагороди.
Центри задоволення
Поняття | Визначення |
---|---|
Залежність | адаптивний стан, пов'язаний з синдромом відміни після припинення багаторазового впливу стимулу (наприклад, споживання наркотиків) |
Сенсибілізація | посилена відповідь на стимул у результаті багаторазового впливу цього стимулу |
Наркотична сенсибілізація або зворотна толерантність | ескалацію ефекту препарату, що виникає в результаті повторного введення в даній дозі |
Абстинентний синдром | симптоми, які виникають після припинення регулярного вживання наркотиків |
Фізична залежність | залежність, що включає в себе симптоми стійкої фізико-соматичної абстиненції (наприклад, втому і делірій) |
Психологічна залежність | залежність, яка включає в себе емоційно-мотиваційні симптоми абстиненції (наприклад, дисфорію та ангедонію) |
Підкріплюючі стимули | стимули, які збільшують ймовірність повторюваної поведінки в парі з ними |
Винагородні стимули | стимули, які мозок інтерпретує як внутрішньозумовлені позитивні |
Адиктивна поведінка | це поведінка, яка є одночасно винагородною і підкріплюючою |
Наркотик | це препарат, який одночасно викликає винагородження і підкріплення |
Розлад, викликаний вживанням психоактивних речовин | це стан, при якому використання таких речовин призводить до клінічно та функціонально значущих порушень або дистресу |
Толерантність | зменшення ефекту лікарського засобу внаслідок повторного введення в тій самій дозі |
Задоволення є складовою частиною винагороди, але не всі нагороди приносять задоволення (наприклад, гроші не викликають задоволення, якщо ця реакція попередньо не зумовлена). Подразники, які є натурально приємними, й тому привабливими, відомі як внутрішньозумовлені винагороди, тоді як подразники, які, хоч і є привабливими і мотивують «поведінку наближення», «таксис», approach behavior, але не є приємними за своєю природою, звуться зовнішньозумовленими винагородами. Зовнішньозумовлені винагороди (наприклад, гроші) стають приємними в результаті асоціативного навчання на основі використання внутрішньозумовлених винагород. іншими словами, зовнішні винагороди діють як мотивуючі магніти, які збурюють реакції саме «бажання», але не «задоволення». Гедонічні точки або центри задоволення (тобто, структури мозку, які опосередковують задоволення або реакції задоволення через внутрішні винагороди — в рамках системи винагороди), які були визначені станом на 15 травня 2015 року, містяться: в «равлику» прилеглого ядра, вентральній частині блідої кулі, і мосту; інсулярна, орбітофронтальна кора, ймовірно, також містять гедоністичні точки.
Одночасна активація всіх гедонічних точок в межах системи винагороди вважається необхідною умовою для створення відчуття сильної ейфорії.
Кент Беридж (Kent Berridge), фахівець в області афективної нейробіології (яка вивчає невральні механізми емоцій), виявив, що солодкий («той, що сподобалося») і гіркий («той, що не сподобалося») смак продукують кожен свою специфічну орофаціальну експресію (міміку), і ці вирази були схожі у новонароджених людей, орангутанів і щурів. Це свідчить про те, що задоволення має об'єктивні особливості і є однаковим по суті у різних тварин. Більшість нейробіологічних досліджень показали, що чим більше дофаміну вивільняється у винагороду, тим більш ефективною є сама винагорода. Це називається гедонічним ефектом, який може бути змінений зусиллями, спрямованими на нагороду і, практично, винагороджувати себе. Але Берридж (Berridge) виявив, що блокування дофамінових систем не змінює позитивної реакції на солодощі, виміряної за виразом обличчя. Іншими словами, гедоністичний вплив не змінюються в залежності від кількості цукру. Це суперечить загальноприйнятому припущенню, що дофамін опосередковує задоволення. Навіть з більш інтенсивним коливанням дофаміну, кінцевий результат, як виявляється, залишаються незмінними. Берридж розробив гіпотезу значущості стимулу, що описує аспект очікування винагороди. Це пояснює і компульсивне вживання наркотиків наркоманами, навіть коли препарат вже не викликає ейфорію, і потяг до препаратів, котрий відчувається навіть після того, як людина успішно пролікована. Деякі залежні реагують на певні невральні зміни, викликані наркотиками. Ця сенсибілізація мозкових структур схожа на ефект допаміну, бо в цьому випадку також виникають реакції бажання та задоволення. Мозок як людини, так і тварин переживає аналогічні зміни, що стосуються системи винагороди через подібність процесів.
Історія
Джеймс Олдс(James Olds) і Пітер Мілнер (Peter Milner) були дослідниками, які відкрили систему винагород в 1954 році, намагаючись навчити щурів як вирішувати проблеми і проходити лабіринти. Вони подразнювали певні ділянки мозку, стимуляція котрих, як було згодом виявлено, викликає задоволення у тварин. Вони спробували провести такі самі досліди з людьми й результати були схожими.
У фундаментальному відкритті, зробленім у 1954 році, дослідники Джеймс Олдс і Пітер Мілнер виявили, що електрична стимуляція певних ділянок мозку струмами низького вольтажу у щурів може слугувати винагородою при навчанні тварин проходити лабіринти і вирішувати проблеми. Виявилося, що стимуляція цих частин мозку давали тваринам задоволення і в більш пізній роботі також люди повідомляли про приємні відчуття від такої стимуляції. Коли щури були протестовані в боксі Скінера (англ. Skinner boxes), де була можливість самостійно стимулювати ділянки системи винагород шляхом натискання на важіль, вони тиснули його протягом кількох годин. Дослідженнями протягом наступних двох десятиліть встановлено, що дофамін є однією з основних хімічних речовин, які допомагають проходженню нейронних сигналів в цих ділянках, і запропоновано вважати його «хімічним задоволенням мозку».
Іван Павлов був психологом, який використовував систему винагород для експериментального створення умовних рефлексів. Павлов використовував систему винагороди практично — шляхом заохочення собак їжею після того, як вони почули дзвінок або інший стимул. Павлов винагороджував собак так, що вони пов'язували нагороду за їжу з дзвінком чи іншим стимулом.
Едвард Л. Торндайк (Edward L. Thorndike) використовував системи винагороди для вивчення . Він помістив кішку в коробку з головоломкою, а їжу розміщував поза коробкою так, щоб кішка хотіла втекти до їжі. Торндайк побачив, що кішки тікали з коробки, коли була їжа, також вони намагалися втекти без нагороди їжею. Торндайк давав котам їжу і свободу для стимуляції системи винагороди, щоби побачити, як кішки вчаться тікати з коробки.
Залежність
ΔFosB (delta FosB), фактор транскрипції генів, є спільним фактором для практично всіх форм залежності (як поведінкової так і наркотичної). Коли концентрація його перевищена в D1-типу середніх шипуватих нейронах у прилеглому ядрі, то виникає поведінкова залежність та залежність нейронної пластичності, зокрема, ΔFosB сприяє «самопризначенню» препарату (рішенню про його вживання), підвищенню «винагородної сенсибілізації» (процесу, який викликає збільшення кількості винагороди) і перехресної «винагородної сенсибілізації» між конкретними наркотиками і поведінковими залежностями.
Наркотики і адиктивна поведінка винагороджуються і (тобто, виникає звикання) у зв'язку з їх впливом на дофаміновий мезолімбічний шлях. Вони не тільки стимулюють ці мозкові системи винагороди більш енергійно, ніж природні нагороди, але можуть також змінити їх. Постійне вживання наркотиків та участь у діяльності, що викликає залежність, знижує резистентність і спричиняє виникнення толерантності. У той час як різке припинення вживання препарату й припинення адиктивної діяльності викликає падіння концентрації дофаміну нижче нормального рівня і спричиняє абстинентний синдром.
Див. також
Примітки
- Nestler EJ (December 2013)"Reward and the NAcc shell vs core", authors: Dumitriu D, Laplant Q, Grossman YS, Dias C, Janssen WG, Russo SJ, Morrison JH, Nestler Title: Subregional, dendritic compartment, and spine subtype specificity in cocaine regulation of dendritic spines in the nucleus accumbens. J. Neurosci.volume32, issue20, pages — 6957–66, year-2012. quote: The enduring spine density change in core but not shell fits well with the established idea that the shell is preferentially involved in the development of addiction, while the core mediates the long-term execution of learned addiction-related behaviors (Ito et al., 2004; Di Chiara, 2002; Meredith et al., 2008). Consistent with the idea of NAc core being the locus of long-lasting drug-induced neuroplasticity, several studies have shown that electrophysiological changes in core persist longer than their shell counterparts. … Furthermore, data presented here support the idea that NAc shell is preferentially involved in immediate drug reward, while the core might play a more explicit role in longer-term aspects of addiction.
- The ins and outs of the striatum: Role in drug addiction, journal Neuroscience «Striatal efferents, afferents, and colocalized receptors in dMSNs and iMSNs», authors: Yager LM, Garcia AF, Wunsch AM, Ferguson SM volume-301, pages 529—541, date-August 2015 quote: The [striatum] receives dopaminergic inputs from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the substantia nigra (SNr) and glutamatergic inputs from several areas, including the cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and thalamus (Swanson, 1982; Phillipson and Griffiths, 1985; Finch, 1996; Groenewegen et al., 1999; Britt et al., 2012). These glutamatergic inputs make contact on the heads of dendritic spines of the striatal GABAergic medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs) whereas dopaminergic inputs synapse onto the spine neck, allowing for an important and complex interaction between these two inputs in modulation of MSN activity … It should also be noted that there is a small population of neurons in the NAc that coexpress both D1 and D2 receptors, though this is largely restricted to the NAc shell (Bertran- Gonzalez et al., 2008). … Neurons in the NAc core and NAc shell subdivisions also differ functionally. The NAc core is involved in the processing of conditioned stimuli whereas the NAc shell is more important in the processing of unconditioned stimuli; Classically, these two striatal MSN populations are thought to have opposing effects on basal ganglia output. Activation of the dMSNs causes a net excitation of the thalamus resulting in a positive cortical feedback loop; thereby acting as a ‘go’ signal to initiate behavior. Activation of the iMSNs, however, causes a net inhibition of thalamic activity resulting in a negative cortical feedback loop and therefore serves as a ‘brake’ to inhibit behavior … there is also mounting evidence that iMSNs play a role in motivation and addiction (Lobo and Nestler, 2011; Grueter et al., 2013). For example, optogenetic activation of NAc core and shell iMSNs suppressed the development of a cocaine CPP whereas selective ablation of NAc core and shell iMSNs … enhanced the development and the persistence of an amphetamine CPP (Durieux et al., 2009; Lobo et al., 2010). These findings suggest that iMSNs can bidirectionally modulate drug reward. … Together these data suggest that iMSNs normally act to restrain drug-taking behavior and recruitment of these neurons may in fact be protective against the development of compulsive drug use.
- Trantham-Davidson H., Neely L. C., Lavin A., Seamans J. K. Mechanisms underlying differential D1 versus D2 dopamine receptor regulation of inhibition in prefrontal cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience, volume24, issue=47, pages=10652–10659
- journal Neuroscience, volume 301, pages529–541, August 2015 «The ins and outs of the striatum». Yager LM, Garcia AF, Wunsch AM, Ferguson SM. Striatal efferents, afferents, and colocalized receptors in dMSNs and iMSNs. : Role in drug addiction. quote: [The striatum] receives dopaminergic inputs from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the substantia nigra (SNr) and glutamatergic inputs from several areas, including the cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and thalamus (Swanson, 1982; Phillipson and Griffiths, 1985; Finch, 1996; Groenewegen et al., 1999; Britt et al., 2012). These glutamatergic inputs make contact on the heads of dendritic spines of the striatal GABAergic medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs) whereas dopaminergic inputs synapse onto the spine neck, allowing for an important and complex interaction between these two inputs in modulation of MSN activity … It should also be noted that there is a small population of neurons in the NAc that coexpress both D1 and D2 receptors, though this is largely restricted to the NAc shell (Bertran- Gonzalez et al., 2008). … Neurons in the NAc core and NAc shell subdivisions also differ functionally. The NAc core is involved in the processing of conditioned stimuli whereas the NAc shell is more important in the processing of unconditioned stimuli; Classically, these two striatal MSN populations are thought to have opposing effects on basal ganglia output. Activation of the dMSNs causes a net excitation of the thalamus resulting in a positive cortical feedback loop; thereby acting as a ‘go’ signal to initiate behavior. Activation of the iMSNs, however, causes a net inhibition of thalamic activity resulting in a negative cortical feedback loop and therefore serves as a ‘brake’ to inhibit behavior … there is also mounting evidence that iMSNs play a role in motivation and addiction (Lobo and Nestler, 2011; Grueter et al., 2013). For example, optogenetic activation of NAc core and shell iMSNs suppressed the development of a cocaine CPP whereas selective ablation of NAc core and shell iMSNs … enhanced the development and the persistence of an amphetamine CPP (Durieux et al., 2009; Lobo et al., 2010). These findings suggest that iMSNs can bidirectionally modulate drug reward. … Together these data suggest that iMSNs normally act to restrain drug-taking behavior and recruitment of these neurons may in fact be protective against the development of compulsive drug use.
- Striatal efferents, afferents, and colocalized receptors in dMSNs and iMSNs" Authors: Yager LM, Garcia AF, Wunsch AM, Ferguson SM Title: The ins and outs of the striatum: Role in drug addiction. journal Neuroscience, volume=301, pages=529–541, August 2015. Quote: [The striatum] receives dopaminergic inputs from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the substantia nigra (SNr) and glutamatergic inputs from several areas, including the cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and thalamus (Swanson, 1982; Phillipson and Griffiths, 1985; Finch, 1996; Groenewegen et al., 1999; Britt et al., 2012). These glutamatergic inputs make contact on the heads of dendritic spines of the striatal GABAergic medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs) whereas dopaminergic inputs synapse onto the spine neck, allowing for an important and complex interaction between these two inputs in modulation of MSN activity … It should also be noted that there is a small population of neurons in the NAc that coexpress both D1 and D2 receptors, though this is largely restricted to the NAc shell (Bertran- Gonzalez et al., 2008). … Neurons in the NAc core and NAc shell subdivisions also differ functionally. The NAc core is involved in the processing of conditioned stimuli whereas the NAc shell is more important in the processing of unconditioned stimuli; Classically, these two striatal MSN populations are thought to have opposing effects on basal ganglia output. Activation of the dMSNs causes a net excitation of the thalamus resulting in a positive cortical feedback loop; thereby acting as a ‘go’ signal to initiate behavior. Activation of the iMSNs, however, causes a net inhibition of thalamic activity resulting in a negative cortical feedback loop and therefore serves as a ‘brake’ to inhibit behavior … there is also mounting evidence that iMSNs play a role in motivation and addiction (Lobo and Nestler, 2011; Grueter et al., 2013). For example, optogenetic activation of NAc core and shell iMSNs suppressed the development of a cocaine CPP whereas selective ablation of NAc core and shell iMSNs … enhanced the development and the persistence of an amphetamine CPP (Durieux et al., 2009; Lobo et al., 2010). These findings suggest that iMSNs can bidirectionally modulate drug reward. … Together these data suggest that iMSNs normally act to restrain drug-taking behavior and recruitment of these neurons may in fact be protective against the development of compulsive drug use.
- Schultz W, 2015 Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data.Journal Physiological Reviews, volume95, issue3, pages 853—951 [1] archivedate 6 September 2015 Quote: Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers. … Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards. Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward. Although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions. … Rewards are attractive. They are motivating and make us exert an effort. … Rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. … Thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward. … Rewarding stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities consist of several major components. First, rewards have basic sensory components (visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory) … Second, rewards are salient and thus elicit attention, which are manifested as orienting responses (FIGURE 1, middle). The salience of rewards derives from three principal factors, namely, their physical intensity and impact (physical salience), their novelty and surprise (novelty/surprise salience), and their general motivational impact shared with punishers (motivational salience). A separate form not included in this scheme, incentive salience, primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior (as opposed to learning) … Third, rewards have a value component that determines the positively motivating effects of rewards and is not contained in, nor explained by, the sensory and attentional components (FIGURE 1, right). This component reflects behavioral preferences and thus is subjective and only partially determined by physical parameters. Only this component constitutes what we understand as a reward. It mediates the specific behavioral reinforcing, approach generating, and emotional effects of rewards that are crucial for the organism's survival and reproduction, whereas all other components are only supportive of these functions. … Rewards can also be intrinsic to behavior (31, 546, 547). They contrast with extrinsic rewards that provide motivation for behavior and constitute the essence of operant behavior in laboratory tests. Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake, without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards. … Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own right, as they induce learning, approach, and pleasure, like perfectioning, playing, and enjoying the piano. Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards, they are not conditioned, higher order rewards, as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward. … These emotions are also called liking (for pleasure) and wanting (for desire) in addiction research (471) and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward.
- Schultz W, 2015, Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data, journal Physiological Reviews, volume=95, issue 3, pages 853—951, [3], archive Quote Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers. … Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards. Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward. Although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions. … Rewards are attractive. They are motivating and make us exert an effort. … Rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. … Thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward. … Rewarding stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities consist of several major components. First, rewards have basic sensory components (visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory) … Second, rewards are salient and thus elicit attention, which are manifested as orienting responses (FIGURE 1, middle). The salience of rewards derives from three principal factors, namely, their physical intensity and impact (physical salience), their novelty and surprise (novelty/surprise salience), and their general motivational impact shared with punishers (motivational salience). A separate form not included in this scheme, incentive salience, primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior (as opposed to learning) … Third, rewards have a value component that determines the positively motivating effects of rewards and is not contained in, nor explained by, the sensory and attentional components (FIGURE 1, right). This component reflects behavioral preferences and thus is subjective and only partially determined by physical parameters. Only this component constitutes what we understand as a reward. It mediates the specific behavioral reinforcing, approach generating, and emotional effects of rewards that are crucial for the organism's survival and reproduction, whereas all other components are only supportive of these functions. … Rewards can also be intrinsic to behavior (31, 546, 547). They contrast with extrinsic rewards that provide motivation for behavior and constitute the essence of operant behavior in laboratory tests. Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake, without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards. … Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own right, as they induce learning, approach, and pleasure, like perfectioning, playing, and enjoying the piano. Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards, they are not conditioned, higher order rewards, as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward. … These emotions are also called liking (for pleasure) and wanting (for desire) in addiction research (471) and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward.
- Schultz W, 2015, Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data, journal Physiological Reviews, volume-95, issue3, pages 853—951 [5] archive Quote Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers. … Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards. Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward. Although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions. … Rewards are attractive. They are motivating and make us exert an effort. … Rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. … Thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward. … Rewarding stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities consist of several major components. First, rewards have basic sensory components (visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory) … Second, rewards are salient and thus elicit attention, which are manifested as orienting responses (FIGURE 1, middle). The salience of rewards derives from three principal factors, namely, their physical intensity and impact (physical salience), their novelty and surprise (novelty/surprise salience), and their general motivational impact shared with punishers (motivational salience). A separate form not included in this scheme, incentive salience, primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior (as opposed to learning) … Third, rewards have a value component that determines the positively motivating effects of rewards and is not contained in, nor explained by, the sensory and attentional components (FIGURE 1, right). This component reflects behavioral preferences and thus is subjective and only partially determined by physical parameters. Only this component constitutes what we understand as a reward. It mediates the specific behavioral reinforcing, approach generating, and emotional effects of rewards that are crucial for the organism's survival and reproduction, whereas all other components are only supportive of these functions. … Rewards can also be intrinsic to behavior (31, 546, 547). They contrast with extrinsic rewards that provide motivation for behavior and constitute the essence of operant behavior in laboratory tests. Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake, without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards. … Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own right, as they induce learning, approach, and pleasure, like perfectioning, playing, and enjoying the piano. Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards, they are not conditioned, higher order rewards, as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward. … These emotions are also called liking (for pleasure) and wanting (for desire) in addiction research (471) and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward.
- Schultz W, 2015, Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data, Physiological Reviews, v95,i3, pages 853—951 [7] [ 2015-09-06 у Wayback Machine.] Quote Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers. … Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards. Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward. Although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions. … Rewards are attractive. They are motivating and make us exert an effort. … Rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. … Thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward. … Rewarding stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities consist of several major components. First, rewards have basic sensory components (visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory) … Second, rewards are salient and thus elicit attention, which are manifested as orienting responses (FIGURE 1, middle). The salience of rewards derives from three principal factors, namely, their physical intensity and impact (physical salience), their novelty and surprise (novelty/surprise salience), and their general motivational impact shared with punishers (motivational salience). A separate form not included in this scheme, incentive salience, primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior (as opposed to learning) … Third, rewards have a value component that determines the positively motivating effects of rewards and is not contained in, nor explained by, the sensory and attentional components (FIGURE 1, right). This component reflects behavioral preferences and thus is subjective and only partially determined by physical parameters. Only this component constitutes what we understand as a reward. It mediates the specific behavioral reinforcing, approach generating, and emotional effects of rewards that are crucial for the organism's survival and reproduction, whereas all other components are only supportive of these functions. … Rewards can also be intrinsic to behavior (31, 546, 547). They contrast with extrinsic rewards that provide motivation for behavior and constitute the essence of operant behavior in laboratory tests. Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake, without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards. … Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own right, as they induce learning, approach, and pleasure, like perfectioning, playing, and enjoying the piano. Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards, they are not conditioned, higher order rewards, as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward. … These emotions are also called liking (for pleasure) and wanting (for desire) in addiction research (471) and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward.
- Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML, Pleasure systems in the brain, journal Neuron v86 issue3 pages 646—664,May 2015 Quote: In the prefrontal cortex, recent evidence indicates that the OFC and insula cortex may each contain their own additional hot spots (D.C. Castro et al., Soc. Neurosci., abstract). In specific subregions of each area, either opioid-stimulating or orexin-stimulating microinjections appear to enhance the number of ‘‘liking’’ reactions elicited by sweetness, similar to the NAc and VP hot spots. Successful confirmation of hedonic hot spots in the OFC or insula would be important and possibly relevant to the orbitofrontal mid-anterior site mentioned earlier that especially tracks the subjective pleasure of foods in humans (Georgiadis et al., 2012; Kringelbach, 2005; Kringelbach et al., 2003; Small et al., 2001; Veldhuizen et al., 2010). Finally, in the brainstem, a hindbrain site near the parabrachial nucleus of dorsal pons also appears able to contribute to hedonic gains of function (Söderpalm and Berridge, 2000). A brainstem mechanism for pleasure may seem more surprising than forebrain hot spots to anyone who views the brainstem as merely reflexive, but the pontine parabrachial nucleus contributes to taste, pain, and many visceral sensations from the body and has also been suggested to play an important role in motivation (Wu et al., 2012) and in human emotion (especially related to the somatic marker hypothesis) (Damasio, 2010).
- Richard JM, Castro DC, Difeliceantonio AG, Robinson MJ, Berridge KC, Mapping brain circuits of reward and motivation: in the footsteps of Ann Kelley, journal Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. volume37 issue9 Pt A pages 1919—1931, November 2013 Quote Figure 3: Neural circuits underlying motivated 'wanting' and hedonic 'liking'.
- Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML: Pleasure systems in the brain, journal Neuron, volume-86, issue3, pages-646–664, May 2015 Quote=In the prefrontal cortex, recent evidence indicates that the OFC and insula cortex may each contain their own additional hot spots (D.C. Castro et al., Soc. Neurosci., abstract). In specific subregions of each area, either opioid-stimulating or orexin-stimulating microinjections appear to enhance the number of ‘‘liking’’ reactions elicited by sweetness, similar to the NAc and VP hot spots. Successful confirmation of hedonic hot spots in the OFC or insula would be important and possibly relevant to the orbitofrontal mid-anterior site mentioned earlier that especially tracks the subjective pleasure of foods in humans (Georgiadis et al., 2012; Kringelbach, 2005; Kringelbach et al., 2003; Small et al., 2001; Veldhuizen et al., 2010). Finally, in the brainstem, a hindbrain site near the parabrachial nucleus of dorsal pons also appears able to contribute to hedonic gains of function (Söderpalm and Berridge, 2000). A brainstem mechanism for pleasure may seem more surprising than forebrain hot spots to anyone who views the brainstem as merely reflexive, but the pontine parabrachial nucleus contributes to taste, pain, and many visceral sensations from the body and has also been suggested to play an important role in motivation (Wu et al., 2012) and in human emotion (especially related to the somatic marker hypothesis) (Damasio, 2010).
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V pershu chergu vinagorodzhuyutsya Voda j insha ridina Seks Yizha Materinstvo batkivstvo Sistema vinagorod angl Reward System ce grupa nervovih struktur vidpovidalnih za stimulyuvannya bazhan i potyagiv zadovolennya ta ihnye pozitivne pidkriplennya tobto navchannya Vinagoroda prinadna j motivacijna vlastivist stimulu sho viklikaye apetitivnu chi konsumativnu povedinku Isnuye ponyattya vinagorodnogo podraznika chi stimula angl rewarding stimulus Ce bud yakij stimul ob yekt podiya diya abo situaciya yaka maye potencial shobi sponukati nas do nablizhennya j spozhivannya togo sho vikliche vinagorodu V sistemi t zv abo instrumentalnogo navchannya sposobu viroblennya umovnih refleksiv pri yakomu na povedinku vplivayut za dopomogoyu naslidkiv povedinki vinagorodi abo pokarannya potencijno vinagorodzhuvani podrazniki diyut yak pozitivni pidkriplyuvachi i obernene tverdzhennya tezh virno pozitivni zmicnyuvachi vinagorodzhuyutsya Pervinni vinagorodi ce ti yaki neobhidni dlya vizhivannya osobini j yiyi nashadkiv i vklyuchayut u sebe Gomeostatichni priyemna yizha Reproduktivni seksualnij kontakt i materinstvo batkivstvo A takozh Vnutrishnozumovleni vinagorodi ce bezumovni vinagorodi yaki ye privablivimi j motivuyut povedinku priyemnimi vidchuttyami Zovnishnozumovleni vinagorodi taki yak groshi ce umovni nagorodi yaki ye privablivimi j motivuyuchimi ale ne ye bezumovno priyemnimi Yihnya cinnist utvorena shlyahom navchannya Voni mozhut takozh stati priyemnimi pislya utvorennya umovnih refleksiv na osnovi vnutrishnozumovlenih vinagorod ViznachennyaU nejrobiologiyi sistema vinagorod viznachayetsya yak sukupnist struktur golovnogo mozku yaki vidpovidayut za vinagorodno zumovlene piznannya v tomu chisli pozitivne navchannya a takozh bazhannya simpatiyu i zadovolennya Anatomiya sistemi vinagorodiMozkovi strukturi z yakih skladayetsya sistema vinagorod znahodyatsya v pershu chergu sered kortiko bazalno gangliyevo talamichnoyi petli najbilsh aktivna chastina kotroyi znahoditsya v bazalnih gangliyah Bilshist shlyahiv yaki z yednuyut strukturi sistemi vinagorodi skladayutsya z glutaminergichnih nejroniv GAMK ergichnih i dofaminergichnih internejroniv hocha inshi tipi nejroniv tezh prisutni Sistema vinagorod ob yednuye taki strukturi yak ventralnu oblast pokrishki ventralnij striatum v pershu chergu prilegle yadro i nyuhovij gorbok dorsalnij striatum hvostate yadro i lushpinu chorna substanciyu prefrontalnu koru perednyu poyasnu koru ostrivcevu insulyarnu koru gipokamp gipotalamus talamus kilka yader subtalamichne yadro blidu kulyu parabrahialni yadra migdalepodibne tilo ta rozshirenu migdalinu Sered shlyahiv sho z yednuyut strukturi v kortiko bazalno gangliyevo talamichnij petli grupi nejroniv vidomi yak mezolimbichni shlyahi yaki z yednuyut ventralnu tegmentalnu dilyanku VTD v prileglomu yadri a takozh pov yazanih z nimi GAMK D 1 tip serednih shipuvatih nejroniv u prileglomu yadri sluguyut odnim z najvazhlivishih komponentiv sistemi vinagorodi yakij bere pryamu uchast u bezposerednomu sprijnyatti motivacijnogo komponenta vinagorodi tobto hotinnya Bilshist dofaminovih shlyahiv nejroni sho vikoristovuyut nejromediator dofamin dlya peredachi signalu vidbuvayutsya u VTD i ye chastinoyu sistemi vinagorodi v cih shlyahah dopamin diye na D 1 podibni abo D 2 podibni receptori tobto stimulyuye D 1 podibni abo ingibuye D 2 podibni virobnictvo ciklichnogo adenozinmonofosfat GAMK ergichni seredni shipuvati nejroni v striatumi takozh ye komponentami sistemi vinagorodi Glutaminergichni proyekciyi yader v prefrontalna kora gipokamp talamus migdalepodibne tilo z yednuyutsya z inshimi chastinami sistemi vinagorodi cherez glutaminergichni shlyahi Medialnij puchok perednogo mozku yakij skladayetsya z monoaminovih nejroniv yaki shlyut proektivni volokna z dekilkoh okremih yader takozh ye chastinoyu sistemi vinagorodi Centri zadovolennya Slovnik terminiv Ponyattya Viznachennya Zalezhnist adaptivnij stan pov yazanij z sindromom vidmini pislya pripinennya bagatorazovogo vplivu stimulu napriklad spozhivannya narkotikiv Sensibilizaciya posilena vidpovid na stimul u rezultati bagatorazovogo vplivu cogo stimulu Narkotichna sensibilizaciya abo zvorotna tolerantnist eskalaciyu efektu preparatu sho vinikaye v rezultati povtornogo vvedennya v danij dozi Abstinentnij sindrom simptomi yaki vinikayut pislya pripinennya regulyarnogo vzhivannya narkotikiv Fizichna zalezhnist zalezhnist sho vklyuchaye v sebe simptomi stijkoyi fiziko somatichnoyi abstinenciyi napriklad vtomu i delirij Psihologichna zalezhnist zalezhnist yaka vklyuchaye v sebe emocijno motivacijni simptomi abstinenciyi napriklad disforiyu ta angedoniyu Pidkriplyuyuchi stimuli stimuli yaki zbilshuyut jmovirnist povtoryuvanoyi povedinki v pari z nimi Vinagorodni stimuli stimuli yaki mozok interpretuye yak vnutrishnozumovleni pozitivni Adiktivna povedinka ce povedinka yaka ye odnochasno vinagorodnoyu i pidkriplyuyuchoyu Narkotik ce preparat yakij odnochasno viklikaye vinagorodzhennya i pidkriplennya Rozlad viklikanij vzhivannyam psihoaktivnih rechovin ce stan pri yakomu vikoristannya takih rechovin prizvodit do klinichno ta funkcionalno znachushih porushen abo distresu Tolerantnist zmenshennya efektu likarskogo zasobu vnaslidok povtornogo vvedennya v tij samij dozi Zadovolennya ye skladovoyu chastinoyu vinagorodi ale ne vsi nagorodi prinosyat zadovolennya napriklad groshi ne viklikayut zadovolennya yaksho cya reakciya poperedno ne zumovlena Podrazniki yaki ye naturalno priyemnimi j tomu privablivimi vidomi yak vnutrishnozumovleni vinagorodi todi yak podrazniki yaki hoch i ye privablivimi i motivuyut povedinku nablizhennya taksis approach behavior ale ne ye priyemnimi za svoyeyu prirodoyu zvutsya zovnishnozumovlenimi vinagorodami Zovnishnozumovleni vinagorodi napriklad groshi stayut priyemnimi v rezultati asociativnogo navchannya na osnovi vikoristannya vnutrishnozumovlenih vinagorod inshimi slovami zovnishni vinagorodi diyut yak motivuyuchi magniti yaki zburyuyut reakciyi same bazhannya ale ne zadovolennya Gedonichni tochki abo centri zadovolennya tobto strukturi mozku yaki oposeredkovuyut zadovolennya abo reakciyi zadovolennya cherez vnutrishni vinagorodi v ramkah sistemi vinagorodi yaki buli viznacheni stanom na 15 travnya 2015 roku mistyatsya v ravliku prileglogo yadra ventralnij chastini blidoyi kuli i mostu insulyarna orbitofrontalna kora jmovirno takozh mistyat gedonistichni tochki Odnochasna aktivaciya vsih gedonichnih tochok v mezhah sistemi vinagorodi vvazhayetsya neobhidnoyu umovoyu dlya stvorennya vidchuttya silnoyi ejforiyi Kent Beridzh Kent Berridge fahivec v oblasti afektivnoyi nejrobiologiyi yaka vivchaye nevralni mehanizmi emocij viyaviv sho solodkij toj sho spodobalosya i girkij toj sho ne spodobalosya smak produkuyut kozhen svoyu specifichnu orofacialnu ekspresiyu mimiku i ci virazi buli shozhi u novonarodzhenih lyudej orangutaniv i shuriv Ce svidchit pro te sho zadovolennya maye ob yektivni osoblivosti i ye odnakovim po suti u riznih tvarin Bilshist nejrobiologichnih doslidzhen pokazali sho chim bilshe dofaminu vivilnyayetsya u vinagorodu tim bilsh efektivnoyu ye sama vinagoroda Ce nazivayetsya gedonichnim efektom yakij mozhe buti zminenij zusillyami spryamovanimi na nagorodu i praktichno vinagorodzhuvati sebe Ale Berridzh Berridge viyaviv sho blokuvannya dofaminovih sistem ne zminyuye pozitivnoyi reakciyi na solodoshi vimiryanoyi za virazom oblichchya Inshimi slovami gedonistichnij vpliv ne zminyuyutsya v zalezhnosti vid kilkosti cukru Ce superechit zagalnoprijnyatomu pripushennyu sho dofamin oposeredkovuye zadovolennya Navit z bilsh intensivnim kolivannyam dofaminu kincevij rezultat yak viyavlyayetsya zalishayutsya nezminnimi Berridzh rozrobiv gipotezu znachushosti stimulu sho opisuye aspekt ochikuvannya vinagorodi Ce poyasnyuye i kompulsivne vzhivannya narkotikiv narkomanami navit koli preparat vzhe ne viklikaye ejforiyu i potyag do preparativ kotrij vidchuvayetsya navit pislya togo yak lyudina uspishno prolikovana Deyaki zalezhni reaguyut na pevni nevralni zmini viklikani narkotikami Cya sensibilizaciya mozkovih struktur shozha na efekt dopaminu bo v comu vipadku takozh vinikayut reakciyi bazhannya ta zadovolennya Mozok yak lyudini tak i tvarin perezhivaye analogichni zmini sho stosuyutsya sistemi vinagorodi cherez podibnist procesiv IstoriyaBoks Skinnera Loudspeaker dinamik Lights svitlo Response lever vazhil vidpovidi Food dispenser dozator yizhi Electrified grid sitka z pidvedenim elektrichnim strumom Dzhejms Olds James Olds i Piter Milner Peter Milner buli doslidnikami yaki vidkrili sistemu vinagorod v 1954 roci namagayuchis navchiti shuriv yak virishuvati problemi i prohoditi labirinti Voni podraznyuvali pevni dilyanki mozku stimulyaciya kotrih yak bulo zgodom viyavleno viklikaye zadovolennya u tvarin Voni sprobuvali provesti taki sami doslidi z lyudmi j rezultati buli shozhimi U fundamentalnomu vidkritti zroblenim u 1954 roci doslidniki Dzhejms Olds i Piter Milner viyavili sho elektrichna stimulyaciya pevnih dilyanok mozku strumami nizkogo voltazhu u shuriv mozhe sluguvati vinagorodoyu pri navchanni tvarin prohoditi labirinti i virishuvati problemi Viyavilosya sho stimulyaciya cih chastin mozku davali tvarinam zadovolennya i v bilsh piznij roboti takozh lyudi povidomlyali pro priyemni vidchuttya vid takoyi stimulyaciyi Koli shuri buli protestovani v boksi Skinera angl Skinner boxes de bula mozhlivist samostijno stimulyuvati dilyanki sistemi vinagorod shlyahom natiskannya na vazhil voni tisnuli jogo protyagom kilkoh godin Doslidzhennyami protyagom nastupnih dvoh desyatilit vstanovleno sho dofamin ye odniyeyu z osnovnih himichnih rechovin yaki dopomagayut prohodzhennyu nejronnih signaliv v cih dilyankah i zaproponovano vvazhati jogo himichnim zadovolennyam mozku Ivan Pavlov buv psihologom yakij vikoristovuvav sistemu vinagorod dlya eksperimentalnogo stvorennya umovnih refleksiv Pavlov vikoristovuvav sistemu vinagorodi praktichno shlyahom zaohochennya sobak yizheyu pislya togo yak voni pochuli dzvinok abo inshij stimul Pavlov vinagorodzhuvav sobak tak sho voni pov yazuvali nagorodu za yizhu z dzvinkom chi inshim stimulom Edvard L Torndajk Edward L Thorndike vikoristovuvav sistemi vinagorodi dlya vivchennya Vin pomistiv kishku v korobku z golovolomkoyu a yizhu rozmishuvav poza korobkoyu tak shob kishka hotila vtekti do yizhi Torndajk pobachiv sho kishki tikali z korobki koli bula yizha takozh voni namagalisya vtekti bez nagorodi yizheyu Torndajk davav kotam yizhu i svobodu dlya stimulyaciyi sistemi vinagorodi shobi pobachiti yak kishki vchatsya tikati z korobki ZalezhnistDFosB delta FosB faktor transkripciyi geniv ye spilnim faktorom dlya praktichno vsih form zalezhnosti yak povedinkovoyi tak i narkotichnoyi Koli koncentraciya jogo perevishena v D1 tipu serednih shipuvatih nejronah u prileglomu yadri to vinikaye povedinkova zalezhnist ta zalezhnist nejronnoyi plastichnosti zokrema DFosB spriyaye samopriznachennyu preparatu rishennyu pro jogo vzhivannya pidvishennyu vinagorodnoyi sensibilizaciyi procesu yakij viklikaye zbilshennya kilkosti vinagorodi i perehresnoyi vinagorodnoyi sensibilizaciyi mizh konkretnimi narkotikami i povedinkovimi zalezhnostyami Narkotiki i adiktivna povedinka vinagorodzhuyutsya i tobto vinikaye zvikannya u zv yazku z yih vplivom na dofaminovij mezolimbichnij shlyah Voni ne tilki stimulyuyut ci mozkovi sistemi vinagorodi bilsh energijno nizh prirodni nagorodi ale mozhut takozh zminiti yih Postijne vzhivannya narkotikiv ta uchast u diyalnosti sho viklikaye zalezhnist znizhuye rezistentnist i sprichinyaye viniknennya tolerantnosti U toj chas yak rizke pripinennya vzhivannya preparatu j pripinennya adiktivnoyi diyalnosti viklikaye padinnya koncentraciyi dofaminu nizhche normalnogo rivnya i sprichinyaye abstinentnij sindrom Div takozhAdiktivna povedinka Ekstrapiramidna sistema Motivaciya Zadovolennya Zalezhnist Ejforiya Chorna rechovina Chervone yadro Smugaste tilo Sochevicepodibne yadro Smugaste tilo Blida kulyaPrimitkiNestler EJ December 2013 Reward and the NAcc shell vs core authors Dumitriu D Laplant Q Grossman YS Dias C Janssen WG Russo SJ Morrison JH Nestler Title Subregional dendritic compartment and spine subtype specificity in cocaine regulation of dendritic spines in the nucleus accumbens J Neurosci volume32 issue20 pages 6957 66 year 2012 quote The enduring spine density change in core but not shell fits well with the established idea that the shell is preferentially involved in the development of addiction while the core mediates the long term execution of learned addiction related behaviors Ito et al 2004 Di Chiara 2002 Meredith et al 2008 Consistent with the idea of NAc core being the locus of long lasting drug induced neuroplasticity several studies have shown that electrophysiological changes in core persist longer than their shell counterparts Furthermore data presented here support the idea that NAc shell is preferentially involved in immediate drug reward while the core might play a more explicit role in longer term aspects of addiction The ins and outs of the striatum Role in drug addiction journal Neuroscience Striatal efferents afferents and colocalized receptors in dMSNs and iMSNs authors Yager LM Garcia AF Wunsch AM Ferguson SM volume 301 pages 529 541 date August 2015 quote The striatum receives dopaminergic inputs from the ventral tegmental area VTA and the substantia nigra SNr and glutamatergic inputs from several areas including the cortex hippocampus amygdala and thalamus Swanson 1982 Phillipson and Griffiths 1985 Finch 1996 Groenewegen et al 1999 Britt et al 2012 These glutamatergic inputs make contact on the heads of dendritic spines of the striatal GABAergic medium spiny projection neurons MSNs whereas dopaminergic inputs synapse onto the spine neck allowing for an important and complex interaction between these two inputs in modulation of MSN activity It should also be noted that there is a small population of neurons in the NAc that coexpress both D1 and D2 receptors though this is largely restricted to the NAc shell Bertran Gonzalez et al 2008 Neurons in the NAc core and NAc shell subdivisions also differ functionally The NAc core is involved in the processing of conditioned stimuli whereas the NAc shell is more important in the processing of unconditioned stimuli Classically these two striatal MSN populations are thought to have opposing effects on basal ganglia output Activation of the dMSNs causes a net excitation of the thalamus resulting in a positive cortical feedback loop thereby acting as a go signal to initiate behavior Activation of the iMSNs however causes a net inhibition of thalamic activity resulting in a negative cortical feedback loop and therefore serves as a brake to inhibit behavior there is also mounting evidence that iMSNs play a role in motivation and addiction Lobo and Nestler 2011 Grueter et al 2013 For example optogenetic activation of NAc core and shell iMSNs suppressed the development of a cocaine CPP whereas selective ablation of NAc core and shell iMSNs enhanced the development and the persistence of an amphetamine CPP Durieux et al 2009 Lobo et al 2010 These findings suggest that iMSNs can bidirectionally modulate drug reward Together these data suggest that iMSNs normally act to restrain drug taking behavior and recruitment of these neurons may in fact be protective against the development of compulsive drug use Trantham Davidson H Neely L C Lavin A Seamans J K Mechanisms underlying differential D1 versus D2 dopamine receptor regulation of inhibition in prefrontal cortex The Journal of Neuroscience volume24 issue 47 pages 10652 10659 journal Neuroscience volume 301 pages529 541 August 2015 The ins and outs of the striatum Yager LM Garcia AF Wunsch AM Ferguson SM Striatal efferents afferents and colocalized receptors in dMSNs and iMSNs Role in drug addiction quote The striatum receives dopaminergic inputs from the ventral tegmental area VTA and the substantia nigra SNr and glutamatergic inputs from several areas including the cortex hippocampus amygdala and thalamus Swanson 1982 Phillipson and Griffiths 1985 Finch 1996 Groenewegen et al 1999 Britt et al 2012 These glutamatergic inputs make contact on the heads of dendritic spines of the striatal GABAergic medium spiny projection neurons MSNs whereas dopaminergic inputs synapse onto the spine neck allowing for an important and complex interaction between these two inputs in modulation of MSN activity It should also be noted that there is a small population of neurons in the NAc that coexpress both D1 and D2 receptors though this is largely restricted to the NAc shell Bertran Gonzalez et al 2008 Neurons in the NAc core and NAc shell subdivisions also differ functionally The NAc core is involved in the processing of conditioned stimuli whereas the NAc shell is more important in the processing of unconditioned stimuli Classically these two striatal MSN populations are thought to have opposing effects on basal ganglia output Activation of the dMSNs causes a net excitation of the thalamus resulting in a positive cortical feedback loop thereby acting as a go signal to initiate behavior Activation of the iMSNs however causes a net inhibition of thalamic activity resulting in a negative cortical feedback loop and therefore serves as a brake to inhibit behavior there is also mounting evidence that iMSNs play a role in motivation and addiction Lobo and Nestler 2011 Grueter et al 2013 For example optogenetic activation of NAc core and shell iMSNs suppressed the development of a cocaine CPP whereas selective ablation of NAc core and shell iMSNs enhanced the development and the persistence of an amphetamine CPP Durieux et al 2009 Lobo et al 2010 These findings suggest that iMSNs can bidirectionally modulate drug reward Together these data suggest that iMSNs normally act to restrain drug taking behavior and recruitment of these neurons may in fact be protective against the development of compulsive drug use Striatal efferents afferents and colocalized receptors in dMSNs and iMSNs Authors Yager LM Garcia AF Wunsch AM Ferguson SM Title The ins and outs of the striatum Role in drug addiction journal Neuroscience volume 301 pages 529 541 August 2015 Quote The striatum receives dopaminergic inputs from the ventral tegmental area VTA and the substantia nigra SNr and glutamatergic inputs from several areas including the cortex hippocampus amygdala and thalamus Swanson 1982 Phillipson and Griffiths 1985 Finch 1996 Groenewegen et al 1999 Britt et al 2012 These glutamatergic inputs make contact on the heads of dendritic spines of the striatal GABAergic medium spiny projection neurons MSNs whereas dopaminergic inputs synapse onto the spine neck allowing for an important and complex interaction between these two inputs in modulation of MSN activity It should also be noted that there is a small population of neurons in the NAc that coexpress both D1 and D2 receptors though this is largely restricted to the NAc shell Bertran Gonzalez et al 2008 Neurons in the NAc core and NAc shell subdivisions also differ functionally The NAc core is involved in the processing of conditioned stimuli whereas the NAc shell is more important in the processing of unconditioned stimuli Classically these two striatal MSN populations are thought to have opposing effects on basal ganglia output Activation of the dMSNs causes a net excitation of the thalamus resulting in a positive cortical feedback loop thereby acting as a go signal to initiate behavior Activation of the iMSNs however causes a net inhibition of thalamic activity resulting in a negative cortical feedback loop and therefore serves as a brake to inhibit behavior there is also mounting evidence that iMSNs play a role in motivation and addiction Lobo and Nestler 2011 Grueter et al 2013 For example optogenetic activation of NAc core and shell iMSNs suppressed the development of a cocaine CPP whereas selective ablation of NAc core and shell iMSNs enhanced the development and the persistence of an amphetamine CPP Durieux et al 2009 Lobo et al 2010 These findings suggest that iMSNs can bidirectionally modulate drug reward Together these data suggest that iMSNs normally act to restrain drug taking behavior and recruitment of these neurons may in fact be protective against the development of compulsive drug use Schultz W 2015 Neuronal reward and decision signals from theories to data Journal Physiological Reviews volume95 issue3 pages 853 951 1 archivedate 6 September 2015 Quote Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward Although it provides a good definition positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions Rewards are attractive They are motivating and make us exert an effort Rewards induce approach behavior also called appetitive or preparatory behavior and consummatory behavior Thus any stimulus object event activity or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward Rewarding stimuli objects events situations and activities consist of several major components First rewards have basic sensory components visual auditory somatosensory gustatory and olfactory Second rewards are salient and thus elicit attention which are manifested as orienting responses FIGURE 1 middle The salience of rewards derives from three principal factors namely their physical intensity and impact physical salience their novelty and surprise novelty surprise salience and their general motivational impact shared with punishers motivational salience A separate form not included in this scheme incentive salience primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior as opposed to learning Third rewards have a value component that determines the positively motivating effects of rewards and is not contained in nor explained by the sensory and attentional components FIGURE 1 right This component reflects behavioral preferences and thus is subjective and only partially determined by physical parameters Only this component constitutes what we understand as a reward It mediates the specific behavioral reinforcing approach generating and emotional effects of rewards that are crucial for the organism s survival and reproduction whereas all other components are only supportive of these functions Rewards can also be intrinsic to behavior 31 546 547 They contrast with extrinsic rewards that provide motivation for behavior and constitute the essence of operant behavior in laboratory tests Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own right as they induce learning approach and pleasure like perfectioning playing and enjoying the piano Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards they are not conditioned higher order rewards as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward These emotions are also called liking for pleasure and wanting for desire in addiction research 471 and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward Schultz W 2015 Neuronal reward and decision signals from theories to data journal Physiological Reviews volume 95 issue 3 pages 853 951 3 archive Quote Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward Although it provides a good definition positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions Rewards are attractive They are motivating and make us exert an effort Rewards induce approach behavior also called appetitive or preparatory behavior and consummatory behavior Thus any stimulus object event activity or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward Rewarding stimuli objects events situations and activities consist of several major components First rewards have basic sensory components visual auditory somatosensory gustatory and olfactory Second rewards are salient and thus elicit attention which are manifested as orienting responses FIGURE 1 middle The salience of rewards derives from three principal factors namely their physical intensity and impact physical salience their novelty and surprise novelty surprise salience and their general motivational impact shared with punishers motivational salience A separate form not included in this scheme incentive salience primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior as opposed to learning Third rewards have a value component that determines the positively motivating effects of rewards and is not contained in nor explained by the sensory and attentional components FIGURE 1 right This component reflects behavioral preferences and thus is subjective and only partially determined by physical parameters Only this component constitutes what we understand as a reward It mediates the specific behavioral reinforcing approach generating and emotional effects of rewards that are crucial for the organism s survival and reproduction whereas all other components are only supportive of these functions Rewards can also be intrinsic to behavior 31 546 547 They contrast with extrinsic rewards that provide motivation for behavior and constitute the essence of operant behavior in laboratory tests Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own right as they induce learning approach and pleasure like perfectioning playing and enjoying the piano Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards they are not conditioned higher order rewards as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward These emotions are also called liking for pleasure and wanting for desire in addiction research 471 and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward Schultz W 2015 Neuronal reward and decision signals from theories to data journal Physiological Reviews volume 95 issue3 pages 853 951 5 archive Quote Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward Although it provides a good definition positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions Rewards are attractive They are motivating and make us exert an effort Rewards induce approach behavior also called appetitive or preparatory behavior and consummatory behavior Thus any stimulus object event activity or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward Rewarding stimuli objects events situations and activities consist of several major components First rewards have basic sensory components visual auditory somatosensory gustatory and olfactory Second rewards are salient and thus elicit attention which are manifested as orienting responses FIGURE 1 middle The salience of rewards derives from three principal factors namely their physical intensity and impact physical salience their novelty and surprise novelty surprise salience and their general motivational impact shared with punishers motivational salience A separate form not included in this scheme incentive salience primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior as opposed to learning Third rewards have a value component that determines the positively motivating effects of rewards and is not contained in nor explained by the sensory and attentional components FIGURE 1 right This component reflects behavioral preferences and thus is subjective and only partially determined by physical parameters Only this component constitutes what we understand as a reward It mediates the specific behavioral reinforcing approach generating and emotional effects of rewards that are crucial for the organism s survival and reproduction whereas all other components are only supportive of these functions Rewards can also be intrinsic to behavior 31 546 547 They contrast with extrinsic rewards that provide motivation for behavior and constitute the essence of operant behavior in laboratory tests Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own right as they induce learning approach and pleasure like perfectioning playing and enjoying the piano Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards they are not conditioned higher order rewards as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward These emotions are also called liking for pleasure and wanting for desire in addiction research 471 and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward Schultz W 2015 Neuronal reward and decision signals from theories to data Physiological Reviews v95 i3 pages 853 951 7 2015 09 06 u Wayback Machine Quote Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward Although it provides a good definition positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions Rewards are attractive They are motivating and make us exert an effort Rewards induce approach behavior also called appetitive or preparatory behavior and consummatory behavior Thus any stimulus object event activity or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward Rewarding stimuli objects events situations and activities consist of several major components First rewards have basic sensory components visual auditory somatosensory gustatory and olfactory Second rewards are salient and thus elicit attention which are manifested as orienting responses FIGURE 1 middle The salience of rewards derives from three principal factors namely their physical intensity and impact physical salience their novelty and surprise novelty surprise salience and their general motivational impact shared with punishers motivational salience A separate form not included in this scheme incentive salience primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior as opposed to learning Third rewards have a value component that determines the positively motivating effects of rewards and is not contained in nor explained by the sensory and attentional components FIGURE 1 right This component reflects behavioral preferences and thus is subjective and only partially determined by physical parameters Only this component constitutes what we understand as a reward It mediates the specific behavioral reinforcing approach generating and emotional effects of rewards that are crucial for the organism s survival and reproduction whereas all other components are only supportive of these functions Rewards can also be intrinsic to behavior 31 546 547 They contrast with extrinsic rewards that provide motivation for behavior and constitute the essence of operant behavior in laboratory tests Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own right as they induce learning approach and pleasure like perfectioning playing and enjoying the piano Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards they are not conditioned higher order rewards as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward These emotions are also called liking for pleasure and wanting for desire in addiction research 471 and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward Berridge KC Kringelbach ML Pleasure systems in the brain journal Neuron v86 issue3 pages 646 664 May 2015 Quote In the prefrontal cortex recent evidence indicates that the OFC and insula cortex may each contain their own additional hot spots D C Castro et al Soc Neurosci abstract In specific subregions of each area either opioid stimulating or orexin stimulating microinjections appear to enhance the number of liking reactions elicited by sweetness similar to the NAc and VP hot spots Successful confirmation of hedonic hot spots in the OFC or insula would be important and possibly relevant to the orbitofrontal mid anterior site mentioned earlier that especially tracks the subjective pleasure of foods in humans Georgiadis et al 2012 Kringelbach 2005 Kringelbach et al 2003 Small et al 2001 Veldhuizen et al 2010 Finally in the brainstem a hindbrain site near the parabrachial nucleus of dorsal pons also appears able to contribute to hedonic gains of function Soderpalm and Berridge 2000 A brainstem mechanism for pleasure may seem more surprising than forebrain hot spots to anyone who views the brainstem as merely reflexive but the pontine parabrachial nucleus contributes to taste pain and many visceral sensations from the body and has also been suggested to play an important role in motivation Wu et al 2012 and in human emotion especially related to the somatic marker hypothesis Damasio 2010 Richard JM Castro DC Difeliceantonio AG Robinson MJ Berridge KC Mapping brain circuits of reward and motivation in the footsteps of Ann Kelley journal Neurosci Biobehav Rev volume37 issue9 Pt A pages 1919 1931 November 2013 Quote Figure 3 Neural circuits underlying motivated wanting and hedonic liking Berridge KC Kringelbach ML Pleasure systems in the brain journal Neuron volume 86 issue3 pages 646 664 May 2015 Quote In the prefrontal cortex recent evidence indicates that the OFC and insula cortex may each contain their own additional hot spots D C Castro et al Soc Neurosci abstract In specific subregions of each area either opioid stimulating or orexin stimulating microinjections appear to enhance the number of liking reactions elicited by sweetness similar to the NAc and VP hot spots Successful confirmation of hedonic hot spots in the OFC or insula would be important and possibly relevant to the orbitofrontal mid anterior site mentioned earlier that especially tracks the subjective pleasure of foods in humans Georgiadis et al 2012 Kringelbach 2005 Kringelbach et al 2003 Small et al 2001 Veldhuizen et al 2010 Finally in the brainstem a hindbrain site near the parabrachial nucleus of dorsal pons also appears able to contribute to hedonic gains of function Soderpalm and Berridge 2000 A brainstem mechanism for pleasure may seem more surprising than forebrain hot spots to anyone who views the brainstem as merely reflexive but the pontine parabrachial nucleus contributes to taste pain and many visceral sensations from the body and has also been suggested to play an important role in motivation Wu et al 2012 and in human emotion especially related to the somatic marker hypothesis Damasio 2010 PosilannyaMozkovi shlyahi Opis sistemi vinagorodi opublikovani Nestler Laboratoriya Kafedra nevrologiyi shkoli medicini Ikan Scholarpedia Vinagoroda Scholarpedia Signali sistemi vinagorodi